Welcome to the ArcheoSearch Glossary of Archaeological Terms, your comprehensive guide to the essential terminology used in the fascinating field of archaeology. Whether you’re an aspiring archaeologist, a seasoned professional, or simply a history enthusiast, this glossary is designed to make complex archaeological concepts and jargon easily accessible. From “absolute dating” to “zooarchaeology,” we’ve got you covered with detailed definitions that will enhance your understanding of archaeology. Dive into our extensive list and discover the language that brings ancient cultures and civilizations to life.
A
Absolute Dating: A method of determining the specific date of an artifact or site in years, often using techniques such as radiocarbon dating or dendrochronology.
Acheulean: A major archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic, characterized by the production of large hand axes and associated with Homo erectus.
Aerial Survey: The use of aircraft or drones to photograph or map archaeological sites from above, revealing features that are not visible from the ground.
Alluvium: Sediment deposited by flowing water, often found in river valleys, and can contain archaeological materials.
Anthropology: The study of humans, past and present. Archaeology is a subfield of anthropology focused on the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains.
Archaeobotany (Paleoethnobotany): The study of plant remains from archaeological sites to understand past human-plant interactions.
Archaeofauna: Animal remains found at archaeological sites, used to infer human diet, hunting practices, and environmental conditions.
Archaeological Context: The position of an artifact, feature, or archaeological find within a site, including its stratigraphic location, association with other finds, and its relationship to the site’s overall structure.
Archaeological Record: The body of physical evidence (artifacts, features, ecofacts, and structures) that archaeologists study to understand past human activities.
Archaeometry: The application of scientific techniques and methods to analyze archaeological materials, including dating, materials analysis, and remote sensing.
Artifact: Any object made, modified, or used by humans, typically found at archaeological sites. Artifacts can include tools, pottery, and ornaments.
B
B.C. (Before Christ) / B.C.E. (Before Common Era): Terms used to denote dates before the birth of Jesus Christ. B.C.E. is the secular equivalent of B.C.
Backfill: The process of refilling an excavation site with the soil that was removed, typically after the completion of archaeological work.
Balk: A narrow strip of unexcavated earth left between excavation units, used as a reference for the stratigraphy of the site.
Biface: A stone tool that has been flaked on both sides to create a sharp edge, commonly associated with prehistoric toolmaking.
Bioarchaeology: The study of human remains from archaeological sites to understand health, diet, and lifestyle in past populations.
Blade: A long, thin stone flake with parallel sides, often used as a tool or as a precursor for making tools in various prehistoric cultures.
Bog Body: A human body preserved in a peat bog, often dating to prehistoric times. The acidic, low-oxygen environment of bogs preserves soft tissues remarkably well.
C
Cairn: A man-made pile or stack of stones, often marking a burial site, a boundary, or a significant location in the landscape.
Carbon Dating (Radiocarbon Dating): A method of dating organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14 isotopes, allowing archaeologists to determine the age of artifacts and ecofacts.
Ceramic: Objects made from clay and hardened by heat, including pottery, bricks, and tiles. Ceramics are one of the most common types of artifacts found at archaeological sites.
Chert: A fine-grained sedimentary rock often used to make stone tools due to its ability to be chipped into sharp edges.
Chronology: The arrangement of events or dates in the order of their occurrence. In archaeology, it refers to the establishment of a timeline for a site or culture.
Context: The position of an artifact, feature, or layer in time and space, and its relationship to other artifacts, features, and layers.
Cultural Resource Management (CRM): The practice of managing and protecting cultural resources, including archaeological sites, historic buildings, and artifacts, often in the context of construction and development projects.
Context: The situation in which an artifact is found. Context is critical in archaeology because it provides information about the artifact’s use and its relationship to other findings.
D
Datum Point: A fixed reference point on an archaeological site from which measurements are taken to establish the location of artifacts and features.
Debitage: The waste material produced during the process of flintknapping or stone tool production.
Dendrochronology: The science of dating events and environmental changes by studying tree rings. It is a precise method of absolute dating, often used to date wooden artifacts or structures.
Deposit: Layers of soil or material that accumulate over time at an archaeological site, often containing artifacts and ecofacts.
Diagnostic Artifact: An artifact that is characteristic of a particular time period or cultural phase, helping to date and identify the site or layer where it was found.
Disturbance: Any natural or human activity that alters the original context of an archaeological site, such as plowing, looting, or construction.
Dolmen: A type of megalithic tomb with a large flat stone laid on upright stones, typically dating to the Neolithic period.
E
Ecofact: Natural materials found at an archaeological site that give information about the environment and human activity, such as seeds, bones, or pollen.
Effigy Mound: A raised pile of earth built in the shape of an animal, human, or geometric figure, often associated with Native American cultures.
Excavation: The process of systematically uncovering archaeological remains through the removal of soil and other materials. Excavation is the primary method for gathering data in archaeology.
Experimental Archaeology: The recreation of ancient technologies and processes to better understand how artifacts were made and used by past cultures.
Extant: Still in existence; surviving. Used to describe cultural practices, artifacts, or features that have continued to the present day.
F
Feature: A non-portable element of an archaeological site, such as a hearth, wall, or ditch. Features are integral parts of the site and cannot be removed without destroying them.
Flake: A small piece of stone removed from a larger core during the process of making stone tools.
Flintknapping: The process of shaping flint or other stones into tools by striking flakes from a core.
Folklore: Traditional beliefs, customs, stories, songs, and practices of a culture or group, often passed down orally through generations.
Formation Process: The processes by which archaeological sites are created and altered, including both cultural processes (like construction) and natural processes (like erosion).
G
Geophysical Survey: A non-invasive method of detecting buried archaeological features using techniques such as ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, and electrical resistivity.
Grave Goods: Objects buried with a deceased person, often for use in the afterlife. These can include pottery, jewelry, weapons, and tools.
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): A geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface, helping archaeologists detect buried structures, features, and artifacts.
Guano: Bird or bat excrement found in caves, often used as a fertilizer. In archaeology, guano deposits can provide valuable information about past environments and human activity.
H
Half-Life: The time it takes for half of the radioactive isotopes in a sample to decay. This concept is fundamental to radiocarbon dating.
Henge: A prehistoric monument consisting of a circular area enclosed by a bank and ditch, often associated with ritual or ceremonial activity.
Hieroglyphics: A system of writing using symbols or pictures, most famously associated with ancient Egypt.
Historic Archaeology: The study of cultures with written records, typically focusing on the last few thousand years, particularly since the advent of European exploration and colonization.
Horizon: A distinctive layer of soil or artifacts that represents a particular period of time, often used to identify and date archaeological sites.
I
In Situ: Latin for “in position.” Refers to an artifact or feature found in its original place of deposition, undisturbed by later activities.
Incised: Decorated with a pattern cut or carved into the surface, often used in reference to pottery or stone tools.
Indigenous Archaeology: Archaeology conducted by, with, and for Indigenous peoples, emphasizing collaboration, cultural sensitivity, and respect for Indigenous knowledge and traditions.
Isotope Analysis: A scientific technique used to identify the geographic origin, diet, and migration patterns of ancient peoples by analyzing isotopic ratios in human or animal remains.
J
Jomon: A Japanese prehistoric culture, dating from around 14,000 to 300 BCE, known for its pottery with cord-marked designs.
Joinery: The process or technique of connecting pieces of wood together to produce more complex items. In archaeology, studying joinery can reveal information about ancient carpentry techniques.
K
Knapper: An individual who creates tools by flaking stone (flintknapping), a skill critical to many prehistoric cultures.
Kurgan: A type of burial mound or barrow associated with the Kurgan culture, which existed on the Eurasian steppes during the Bronze Age. These mounds are important archaeological features for understanding ancient nomadic societies.
L
Lamination: The process in which thin layers of sediment accumulate over time, often preserving artifacts or fossils within the layers. In archaeology, lamination can provide insights into the sequence of events at a site.
Level: The layer or stratum of an archaeological site, often reflecting different periods of occupation or use.
Line Level: A tool used by archaeologists to ensure that their measurements and excavations are level and accurate.
Lithic: Refers to stone artifacts, often associated with tool-making. Lithic analysis is crucial in understanding prehistoric technology.
Lithics: Stone tools and the debris produced from their manufacture. Lithic analysis is a key part of understanding prehistoric technology.
Locus: A specific location within an archaeological site, often used to define a particular feature or artifact concentration.
Looting: The illegal excavation and removal of artifacts from archaeological sites, often causing irreparable harm to the site and the loss of valuable historical context.
M
Midden: An ancient trash heap or refuse mound that can contain a variety of artifacts, including food remains, broken tools, and pottery. Middens are valuable for understanding the daily lives of past peoples.
Megalith: A large stone used in the construction of prehistoric monuments, such as Stonehenge. Megalithic structures are often associated with ritual or ceremonial activities.
Microlith: A small, flaked stone tool, typically used as part of a composite tool, such as a spear or arrowhead. Microliths are characteristic of the Mesolithic period.
Mosaic: An artistic design made by assembling small pieces of colored stone, glass, or other materials. Mosaics were popular in ancient Roman and Byzantine architecture.
Mortuary Practices: The methods and rituals associated with the burial or cremation of the dead. These practices can reveal a great deal about a society’s beliefs, social structure, and culture.
Monolith: A single large block of stone, often used in monumental structures. In archaeology, monoliths are significant for understanding the engineering and ritual practices of ancient peoples.
N
Neolithic: The “New Stone Age,” a period beginning around 10,000 BCE marked by the development of agriculture, the domestication of animals, and the production of polished stone tools.
Nomadic: Referring to societies that move from place to place rather than settling permanently in one location. Nomadic lifestyles are often associated with hunting and gathering or pastoralism.
Numismatics: The study of coins and other currency, which can provide valuable information about ancient economies, trade, and cultural exchange.
NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act): A U.S. law passed in 1990 that requires federal agencies and institutions that receive federal funding to return Native American cultural items, including human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects, to their respective peoples.
O
Obsidian: A naturally occurring volcanic glass that was highly valued in ancient cultures for making sharp tools and weapons due to its ability to be flaked into very thin, sharp edges.
Ochre: A natural clay earth pigment that ranges in color from yellow to red. Ochre was commonly used by ancient peoples for art, body paint, and as a preservative in burials.
Oral History: The collection and study of historical information using sound recordings of interviews with people having personal knowledge of past events. Oral history is an important source of information in archaeology, particularly for understanding Indigenous cultures.
Outcrop: An exposed section of rock or sediment that appears at the Earth’s surface. In archaeology, outcrops can be significant as sources of raw materials for tool-making.
P
Paleoanthropology: The study of ancient humans and their relatives through fossils, artifacts, and other physical remains.
Paleobotany: The study of fossilized plants and plant remains, which helps archaeologists understand ancient environments and human-plant interactions.
Palimpsest: In archaeology, a site that has been used and reused by different cultures over time, resulting in overlapping layers of artifacts and features. The term originally comes from manuscript studies, where it refers to a document that has been scraped clean and reused.
Pedestal: The technique of leaving an artifact or feature on a small column of soil during excavation to photograph and record it before removal.
Petroglyph: An image or symbol carved into rock surfaces, often created by prehistoric peoples. Petroglyphs are found worldwide and are significant for understanding ancient symbolism and communication.
Posthole: A circular stain left in the ground after a wooden post has decayed. Postholes are often found in patterns, indicating the locations of ancient structures such as buildings or fences.
Pottery: Objects made of clay and hardened by heat, including vessels, figurines, and tiles. Pottery is one of the most common types of artifacts found in archaeological sites and is crucial for dating and understanding ancient cultures.
Provenience: The exact location where an artifact or feature was found within an archaeological site, including its depth and the layer of soil in which it was found.
Pyramid: A monumental structure with a square or triangular base and sloping sides that meet at an apex, commonly associated with ancient Egyptian tombs.
Q
Quarry: A site where stone or other materials are extracted for use in construction or tool-making. Quarries are important archaeological sites for understanding ancient industry and trade.
Quern: A simple hand mill used to grind grain into flour. Querns are often found at archaeological sites and provide insights into ancient diets and agricultural practices.
R
Radiocarbon Dating: A method of determining the age of organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14 isotopes. This technique is widely used in archaeology to date artifacts, bones, and other remains.
Repatriation: The process of returning cultural artifacts or human remains to their country of origin or to the descendants of the people they were taken from. Repatriation is an important issue in archaeology, particularly regarding Indigenous communities.
Rescue Archaeology: Also known as salvage archaeology, this refers to the excavation and documentation of archaeological sites that are in danger of being destroyed by construction or natural disasters.
Rock Art: Paintings or carvings made on natural rock surfaces by ancient peoples. Rock art can include pictographs (painted images) and petroglyphs (carved images).
S
Section: A vertical profile of an archaeological site, showing the layers of soil and artifacts as they were deposited over time. Sections are crucial for understanding the stratigraphy of a site.
Seriation: A relative dating method that orders artifacts or features into a sequence based on their attributes, such as style or frequency. Seriation helps archaeologists understand changes in culture over time.
Sherd: A fragment of pottery or glass found at an archaeological site. Sherds are valuable for reconstructing vessels and understanding ancient pottery techniques.
Site: Any location where evidence of past human activity is found. Archaeological sites can range from small campsites to large urban centers.
Stratigraphy: The study of soil layers (strata) at an archaeological site. Stratigraphy is used to determine the chronological sequence of events and activities at a site.
Survey: The systematic search for archaeological sites in a specific area, often involving walking the landscape, mapping, and collecting surface artifacts.
T
Tel (Tell): A mound or hill formed by the accumulation of human occupation debris over centuries or millennia. Tels are common in the Middle East and are key archaeological sites for understanding ancient urban settlements.
Tesserae: Small, square pieces of stone, glass, or ceramic used in mosaics. Tesserae are found in Roman and Byzantine sites and are important for studying ancient art and architecture.
Thermoluminescence: A dating technique used to determine the last time an object, such as pottery, was heated. It measures the amount of trapped electrons released when the object is reheated.
Trench: A long, narrow excavation used to explore a specific area of an archaeological site. Trenches are often used to uncover walls, roads, or other linear features.
Trowel: A tool that an archaeologist uses to dig in the ground. It’s very useful because it allows you to dig in a sideways, scraping fashion. It’s the single most useful tool to an archaeologist.
U
Underwater Archaeology: The study of submerged archaeological sites, such as shipwrecks, sunken cities, and drowned landscapes. Underwater archaeology requires specialized techniques and equipment.
Urban Archaeology: The study of archaeological remains in urban areas, often involving the excavation of historic buildings, streets, and infrastructure. Urban archaeology provides insights into the development of cities and the lives of their inhabitants.
V
Varve: A pair of sedimentary layers deposited annually in a lake, often used in dating geological and archaeological events.
Vessel: A container, typically made of pottery, used for storing, cooking, or serving food and liquids. Vessels are among the most common artifacts found at archaeological sites.
Volumetric Analysis: A technique used to measure the volume of artifacts or features, often used to estimate the amount of material produced or consumed by ancient peoples.
W
Wear Analysis: The study of wear patterns on artifacts, such as tools or pottery, to determine how they were used. Wear analysis can reveal information about the daily activities and technology of ancient cultures.
Wet Sieving: A technique used in archaeology to recover small artifacts and ecofacts by washing soil samples through a fine mesh sieve. Wet sieving is particularly useful for recovering tiny remains such as seeds and bones.
Wheelhouse: A type of roundhouse with a distinctive, radiating internal structure, found in Iron Age Scotland. Wheelhouses provide insights into the architecture and domestic life of ancient Celtic peoples.
X
Xerophyte: A plant adaptedIt seems that the glossary text was cut off, and it didn’t include all the terms in the final draft. Let’s pick up where we left off and finish the comprehensive ArcheoSearch Glossary of Archaeological Terms.
W
Wheelhouse: A type of roundhouse with a distinctive, radiating internal structure, found in Iron Age Scotland. Wheelhouses provide insights into the architecture and domestic life of ancient Celtic peoples.
Wet Sieving: A technique used in archaeology to recover small artifacts and ecofacts by washing soil samples through a fine mesh sieve. Wet sieving is particularly useful for recovering tiny remains such as seeds and bones.
Wear Analysis: The study of wear patterns on artifacts, such as tools or pottery, to determine how they were used. Wear analysis can reveal information about the daily activities and technology of ancient cultures.
X
Xerophyte: A plant adapted to survive in dry, arid conditions. In archaeology, the presence of xerophyte remains can provide information about past climates and environments.
XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence): A non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of artifacts, such as metals, ceramics, and glass. XRF is widely used in archaeology for sourcing raw materials and understanding ancient technologies.
Y
Y-DNA (Y-Chromosome DNA): Genetic material passed from father to son that is used in bioarchaeology to trace paternal lineages and study the genetic history of populations.
Yardang: A streamlined, wind-eroded ridge found in desert environments. In archaeology, yardangs can indicate ancient wind patterns and environmental conditions.
Z
Zooarchaeology: The study of animal remains, such as bones, teeth, and shells, found at archaeological sites. Zooarchaeology provides insights into human-animal relationships, diet, and the environment.
Ziggurat: A type of massive terraced structure found in ancient Mesopotamia, typically serving as a temple complex. Ziggurats are among the most iconic architectural forms of the ancient Near East.
Zone: A distinct layer or area within an archaeological site, often characterized by specific types of artifacts, features, or soil conditions.